• Obstructive lung diseases (difficulty exhaling)

  • Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

  • Asthma

  • Bronchitis

• Restrictive lung diseases (difficulty expanding the lungs)

  • Pulmonary fibrosis

  • Obesity hypoventilation syndrome

  • Kyphoscoliosis

Pneumonia

Tuberculosis

COVID-19

• Pulmonary embolism

• Pulmonary hypertension

• Pleural effusion

• Pneumothorax

• Heart failure (CHF) – leads to pulmonary congestion and fluid buildup

• Coronary artery disease (CAD) – may cause exertional dyspnea

• Valvular heart disease – especially mitral or aortic stenosis

• Arrhythmias – such as atrial fibrillation

• Pericardial disease – pericardial effusion or tamponade

• Anemia – reduced oxygen-carrying capacity

• Carbon monoxide poisoning – impairs oxygen delivery

• Acidosis (e.g., diabetic ketoacidosis, metabolic acidosis)

Neuromuscular disorders (e.g., myasthenia gravis, ALS, Guillain-Barré syndrome)

Anxiety or panic attacks – can lead to hyperventilation and a sensation of air hunger